Knowledge base

Peptide Wiki

Educational reference for research peptides and GLP-1 compounds. Learn what they are, how they work, and what self-directed communities report about protocols and dosing.

Healing & Recovery

10

Peptides commonly reported for tissue repair and injury recovery.

Cartalax

Vendor and secondary sources describe Cartalax as supporting chondrocyte gene expression and cartilage cell proliferation, consistent with the general Khavinson bioregulator framework applied to cartilage tissue specifically. The general concept behind this peptide, that very short peptides can influence tissue-specific gene expression, does have supporting research for other compounds in the same program, such as Epithalon's telomerase research. Whether that framework has been independently confirmed for Cartalax specifically is a separate, unresolved question.

Deadpool Stack

BPC-157's research base centers on blood vessel formation and gut-related signaling, both of which relate to how tissue receives blood flow and support. TB-500's research base centers on actin, the protein that lets cells move and change shape, making it a subject of research in wound closure and directed cell movement. Cartalax is marketed toward cartilage-specific research, proposed to support chondrocyte gene expression, though this claim rests on a much thinner and less independently verified evidence base than the other two components.

BPC-157

Since it originates from gastric juice, a lot of the early studies looked at BPC-157's role in the gut lining, including research related to ulcers and inflammatory bowel conditions. Several studies have looked at how BPC-157 relates to tendon healing, especially around Achilles tendon injuries, tracking how the tissue changed over time. Some research has looked at BPC-157 in the context of muscle tears and injuries, examining how the tissue responded during healing. A smaller amount of research has explored BPC-157 in relation to nerve regeneration, though this area is less developed than the gut and tendon research.

BPC-157 + TB-500 (Wolverine Stack)

Both peptides have been studied individually for their role in tissue repair processes, which is the main reason researchers pair them. BPC-157's research base centers on the gut lining and blood vessel formation, while Thymosin Beta-4's centers on cell migration and wound closure. Each peptide has separately been studied in animal models of muscle and tendon injury, with BPC-157 research focused on tendon-to-bone healing and Thymosin Beta-4 research focused on directing cell movement to the injury site. Because the two mechanisms don't overlap directly, researchers studying recovery-related processes sometimes look at how the two peptides might complement each other rather than duplicate the same pathway.

KPV

A significant body of KPV research has focused on inflammatory bowel conditions, where studies have found it reduces markers of inflammation in animal models of colitis. KPV has also been studied in models of skin inflammation, building on its parent hormone's known anti-inflammatory role in that tissue. Beyond specific tissues, foundational research has focused on exactly how KPV produces its anti-inflammatory effect at the cellular level, including comparisons to how the full-length alpha-MSH hormone works.

LL-37

The foundational area of LL-37 research is its ability to directly kill or disable a broad range of bacteria, fungi, and viruses as part of the body's innate immune response. Research has found LL-37 plays a distinct role in skin wound closure, showing up at high levels in healing skin and appearing to support the movement and growth of the cells that reseal a wound. Beyond wound closure specifically, LL-37 has been studied for its ability to promote the formation of new blood vessels, a related process that supports tissue repair.

Thymosin Alpha-1

The most established area of Thymosin Alpha-1 research addresses chronic hepatitis B, where a randomized controlled trial found it improved rates of viral response compared to standard care. Beyond hepatitis specifically, a broader body of research has examined how Thymosin Alpha-1 modulates immune cell activity across a range of viral infections, describing its interaction with several immune signaling pathways. Interest in Thymosin Alpha-1 for sepsis grew out of smaller earlier trials suggesting benefit, but the largest and most rigorous trial to date, involving over 1,100 patients, found no reduction in mortality compared to placebo, a result that meaningfully tempers the earlier, more promising findings.

TB-500

The foundational research on this actin-binding fragment found it promoted dermal wound repair in diabetic and aged mice, conditions where healing is typically delayed, matching results seen with the full-length protein in the same study. Research isolating this same fragment found it was sufficient on its own to drive angiogenic activity, meaning the formation of new blood vessels, at a level comparable to the complete Thymosin Beta-4 protein in cell and tissue models. Broader foundational research on Thymosin Beta-4, the parent protein this fragment is drawn from, established its role in accelerating wound healing across multiple animal models, providing the research context this fragment was later tested against.

Thymalin

The most cited research on Thymalin comes from a long-term observational study of elderly patients that tracked health outcomes over 6 to 8 years following a course of Thymalin treatment. More recent research examined Thymalin as an add-on treatment in older patients hospitalized with severe COVID-19, tracking immune markers alongside standard care. A consistent theme across the Thymalin literature is its proposed effect on restoring T-lymphocyte counts and normalizing immune cell activity in older adults, which ties back to the thymus-focused rationale behind the compound's original development.

Larazotide Acetate

A randomized controlled trial in celiac disease patients with ongoing symptoms despite following a gluten-free diet found that Larazotide acetate improved symptom scores compared to placebo, though results across different measures were mixed. Broader research has characterized exactly how Larazotide interacts with the zonulin pathway and tight junction proteins, providing the mechanistic foundation for its celiac disease research. Larazotide reached Phase 3 development, the most advanced stage of any compound covered on this site apart from approved drugs, and received FDA Fast Track designation. However, the Phase 3 CeDLara trial did not meet its primary endpoint in 2022, an outcome that's essential context for understanding the current state of this research.

Metabolic & GLP-1

17

Compounds reported to affect metabolism, appetite, and weight.

Eloralintide

A Phase 2 trial in 263 adults with obesity or overweight found that all tested doses of Eloralintide met the trial's primary endpoint, with mean weight reductions ranging from 9.5% to 20.1% at 48 weeks compared to 0.4% with placebo. The same trial found Eloralintide was associated with improvements across several cardiometabolic measures beyond weight alone, including waist circumference, blood pressure, lipid profiles, glycemic control, and markers of inflammation. Because Eloralintide works through a mechanism distinct from GLP-1 and GIP receptor agonists, Eli Lilly is separately evaluating it in combination with tirzepatide, exploring whether pairing an amylin-selective compound with incretin-based therapy produces effects beyond either approach alone.

Mazdutide

The Phase 3 GLORY-1 trial found that Mazdutide 9 mg produced weight loss exceeding 20% in obese adults without type 2 diabetes over roughly a year of treatment with a two-step dose titration, results that supported its NMPA approval. A head-to-head Phase 3 trial (DREAMS-3) in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes and obesity found Mazdutide outperformed semaglutide on its primary endpoint, the combined measure of achieving target HbA1c alongside at least 10% body weight reduction. Earlier Phase 1b and Phase 2 trials established Mazdutide's dose-response relationship and safety profile, finding weight reductions of up to nearly 10% at 12 weeks in dose-ranging studies that preceded the larger Phase 3 program.

Retatrutide + Cagrilintide

Retatrutide's own Phase 2 trial data reported some of the largest weight reductions seen in this drug class, driven by its triple-receptor mechanism. Cagrilintide's research separately ties its weight effects to amylin receptor activation in the brain. Retatrutide affects appetite through GLP-1 and GIP receptor activity, while Cagrilintide affects it through an entirely separate amylin receptor pathway, giving researchers interest in whether combining them produces a more complete appetite-suppressing signal than either alone. Interest in this specific pairing builds on the established combination of cagrilintide with semaglutide, a GLP-1-only compound, which has shown that pairing an amylin analog with an incretin-based peptide can produce effects beyond what either compound achieves individually.

Retatrutide + Tirzepatide

Tirzepatide's SURMOUNT trial program reported some of the largest weight reductions of any approved medication in its class. Retatrutide's own Phase 2 trial reported even larger average reductions, up to roughly 24% of body weight at 48 weeks with its highest dose, a difference researchers have tied to the added glucagon receptor activity. Because Retatrutide shares two of Tirzepatide's three targets, research interest has focused on isolating what the added glucagon receptor component specifically contributes, beyond what GLP-1 and GIP activation alone achieve. Some research and clinical interest has explored whether Retatrutide might serve as a next step for patients who've plateaued on Tirzepatide, or whether the compounds could complement each other in sequence, though this remains an area with limited published data specifically comparing outcomes between the two.

5-Amino-1MQ

Studies in mice have looked at how blocking NNMT affects fat tissue specifically, with research showing a reduction in fat mass that did not extend to muscle tissue. Research has examined how NNMT inhibition affects the rate at which cells use energy, with studies pointing to increased energy use in treated animals. Some research has looked at how reducing NNMT activity relates to glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in animal models.

Cagrilintide

The core research focus on Cagrilintide is how it interacts with amylin receptors in the brain to influence appetite and food intake signaling. Research in both animal models and human trials has looked at how Cagrilintide affects body weight, with studies specifically tracking changes in fat mass relative to lean mass. A significant portion of current research pairs Cagrilintide with GLP-1 receptor agonists like semaglutide, studying whether the two mechanisms produce a more complete signal than either compound alone.

Semaglutide

Semaglutide's original approval was for type 2 diabetes, based on its ability to lower blood sugar by increasing insulin release and reducing glucagon, a hormone that raises blood sugar. A large body of clinical trial data, most notably the STEP trial program, has examined semaglutide's effect on body weight in people with overweight or obesity. A large-scale trial in people with cardiovascular disease and overweight or obesity, but without diabetes, found that semaglutide reduced the rate of major cardiovascular events compared to placebo over roughly three years of follow-up.

Tirzepatide

Tirzepatide's original approval was for type 2 diabetes, based on its ability to improve blood sugar regulation through its dual receptor activity. The SURMOUNT trial program studied tirzepatide's effect on body weight in people with obesity or overweight, reporting some of the largest average weight reductions seen in this drug class. A head-to-head trial directly compared tirzepatide against semaglutide in people with type 2 diabetes, finding tirzepatide produced greater reductions in both blood sugar and body weight over 40 weeks.

Retatrutide

The primary focus of retatrutide research has been its effect on body weight, with a Phase 2 trial in people with obesity reporting average reductions of up to roughly 24% at 48 weeks with the highest dose tested. A separate Phase 2 trial in people with type 2 diabetes evaluated retatrutide's effect on blood sugar regulation alongside its effect on body weight in that population. Because retatrutide activates the glucagon receptor in addition to GLP-1 and GIP, research has also expanded into areas like liver fat, since glucagon signaling is tied to energy expenditure and fat metabolism beyond appetite alone.

Adipotide

The foundational study found that targeting prohibitin with a proapoptotic peptide caused significant fat loss in obese mice by disrupting the blood supply to white adipose tissue. A follow-up study in obese rhesus monkeys found that 28 days of treatment produced an average 11% reduction in body weight, along with improvements in insulin resistance, but also identified reversible kidney toxicity as a significant safety finding. The kidney toxicity identified in primate studies is the primary reason cited for discontinuing Adipotide's clinical development. A Phase 1 trial in cancer patients began in 2012, but no broader human efficacy program followed.

AOD-9604

Early research found that AOD-9604 reduced body weight gain in obese rats without the negative effects on insulin sensitivity typically seen with full-length growth hormone. A published human study assessed the safety and tolerability of AOD-9604 across a range of doses, part of the broader clinical development program before it was discontinued. Despite the encouraging animal data and six completed human trials involving roughly 900 participants, the pivotal Phase IIb obesity trial did not meet its primary efficacy endpoint, and the sponsoring company ended development in 2007. This is an important and often underreported part of the AOD-9604 story.

Survodutide

A Phase 2 dose-finding trial in adults with obesity found survodutide produced dose-dependent reductions in body weight, with the highest tested dose reaching a mean reduction of nearly 15% at 46 weeks. A separate Phase 2 trial in people with MASH and liver fibrosis found survodutide produced significantly higher rates of histologic improvement in liver disease compared to placebo, one of the stronger responses reported in this specific trial category to date. Beyond obesity and liver disease, research has also examined survodutide's effect on markers of insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in people with type 2 diabetes or overweight.

ATX-304

A completed 28-day human Phase IIa trial in people with type 2 diabetes already taking metformin found improvements in blood glucose, blood pressure, and microvascular perfusion. A preclinical mouse study found reduced body fat mass, lower blood cholesterol, and mitigation of liver steatosis and fibrosis progression, alongside a shift toward increased fatty acid oxidation and reduced lipid synthesis. Research found protection against cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury in animal models and cultured kidney cells, linked to reduced energy stress and mitochondrial changes.

Orforglipron

The Phase 3 ATTAIN-1 trial found all three tested doses met the primary endpoint of superior weight reduction versus placebo, with the highest dose producing an average loss of 12.4% at 72 weeks. The Phase 3 ACHIEVE-1 trial found average A1C reductions of 1.3% to 1.6% at 40 weeks compared with placebo. ATTAIN-2 studied people with obesity and type 2 diabetes and found 10.5% average weight reduction at the highest dose alongside A1C improvement. ATTAIN-MAINTAIN separately examined weight maintenance after switching from injectable GLP-1 therapy.

SLU-915

Research has examined SLU-915's effects on gene expression and receptor activity in cell-based assays and mouse models, building on the ERR-activation framework established for SLU-PP-332. A recent analytical chemistry study characterized the in vitro metabolism of SLU-PP-332 and SLU-915 together, partly because of their potential relevance to sports anti-doping testing.

SLU-PP-332

The foundational study found activation of an acute aerobic exercise genetic program in mouse skeletal muscle, increased type IIa oxidative muscle fibers, and enhanced exercise endurance. A follow-up study in obese mice found increased energy expenditure and fatty acid oxidation alongside decreased fat mass accumulation. More recent research has extended the mechanism into heart failure models, where pan-ERR agonism enhanced cardiac fatty acid metabolism and mitochondrial function.

Tesofensine

The Phase II trial found approximately 10% placebo-subtracted weight loss over 24 weeks with tesofensine 0.5 mg. A separate controlled study in overweight and moderately obese men found effects on 24-hour energy expenditure and fat oxidation alongside appetite suppression. Preclinical research in obese rats linked the hypophagic effect to indirect stimulation of alpha-1 adrenergic and dopamine D1 receptor pathways.

Growth Hormone

10

Secretagogues and releasing hormones reported to affect GH levels.

CJC-1295 No DAC

The core area of research is how CJC-1295 No DAC activates the GHRH receptor on the pituitary gland, which is the first step in the body's natural growth hormone release process. Because it clears the body quickly, researchers have studied CJC-1295 No DAC for how closely it mirrors the body's own pulsatile release pattern, compared to longer-acting versions that produce more sustained activity. CJC-1295 No DAC is frequently studied alongside other growth hormone secretagogues, such as Ipamorelin, since the two act on separate receptors that both feed into growth hormone release.

CJC-1295 No DAC + Ipamorelin

CJC-1295 without DAC has been studied for its ability to activate the GHRH receptor and stimulate growth hormone release in a pattern that mirrors the body's natural pulses. Ipamorelin has been studied specifically for its selectivity, meaning research has found it stimulates growth hormone without meaningfully raising cortisol, prolactin, or ACTH the way some earlier compounds in its class did. Because the two peptides act on separate receptors that both feed into the same downstream hormone, researchers have looked at whether combining them produces a more complete signal than either compound alone.

IGF-1 LR3

The original research on IGF-1 LR3 examined how reducing its binding to carrier proteins affected organ growth and circulating hormone levels in animal models. Animal studies have also looked at how sustained IGF-1 LR3 exposure affects the body's own hormone production, including growth hormone and native IGF-1 levels, since the body's feedback systems respond to how much IGF-1 signaling is already present. Beyond whole-animal studies, IGF-1 LR3 is used in cell-based research to study the signaling pathways activated when IGF-1 receptors are engaged for extended periods.

Ipamorelin

The defining area of ipamorelin research is its ability to stimulate growth hormone release while leaving other pituitary hormones, including cortisol, prolactin, and ACTH, largely unaffected. A dedicated human trial characterized how ipamorelin behaves in the body over time, mapping out its absorption, clearance, and the timing of the growth hormone response it triggers. Because ipamorelin sits alongside other growth hormone secretagogues developed over several decades, researchers have reviewed how it compares mechanistically and in selectivity to earlier compounds in the same family.

Hexarelin

Like other peptides in its class, hexarelin has been studied for its ability to trigger pituitary growth hormone release through the ghrelin receptor pathway. A significant body of hexarelin-specific research has focused on its effects on heart tissue, including studies on coronary blood vessel activity and protection of heart muscle during periods of reduced blood flow. Beyond the heart specifically, hexarelin and related GHRPs have been studied more broadly for cell-protective effects across different tissue types, an area of research that has developed over several decades.

Sermorelin

The core clinical evidence for sermorelin comes from its original approved use. A multicenter trial found that daily sermorelin produced sustained increases in growth velocity in growth hormone-deficient children over 12 months of treatment. Beyond treatment, sermorelin has also been studied and used as a diagnostic tool, since how a patient's pituitary responds to a sermorelin dose can help distinguish different causes of growth hormone deficiency. Separate from its pediatric approval, sermorelin-related research has extended into adult populations, including a study examining long-term GHRH(1-29) administration in older men and women and its effects on the growth hormone and metabolic axis.

Tesamorelin

The core evidence for tesamorelin comes from its approved indication. A pivotal Phase 3 trial in 412 adults with HIV-associated abdominal fat accumulation found a significant reduction in visceral adipose tissue compared to placebo over 26 weeks. A pooled analysis combining two large Phase 3 trials, totaling more than 800 participants, confirmed a consistent reduction in visceral fat with tesamorelin treatment, reinforcing the original trial's findings at a larger scale. Beyond the fat reduction itself, research has examined whether that change in visceral fat translates into broader metabolic improvements, finding that reduced visceral adiposity was associated with a more favorable metabolic profile in treated patients.

Tesamorelin + Ipamorelin

Tesamorelin's approved research base centers on reducing visceral abdominal fat, with large Phase 3 trials showing significant reductions in people with HIV-associated lipodystrophy. Ipamorelin's research base centers on its ability to stimulate growth hormone release while leaving other pituitary hormones largely unaffected, a selectivity profile established in its original characterization. Because the two peptides activate separate receptors that both feed into growth hormone release, researchers combining them are generally interested in whether the two signals together produce a more complete response than either alone.

Follistatin-344

Foundational research established that follistatin physically binds myostatin and blocks the receptor interaction responsible for myostatin's muscle-limiting signal. Broader research on myostatin regulation, including animal models where the myostatin gene itself is disabled, has consistently found dramatic increases in muscle mass, providing the biological backdrop against which follistatin's myostatin-binding activity is studied. Research has extended beyond rodents into larger mammals, including a study in transgenic pigs expressing human Follistatin-344, which found increased skeletal muscle mass without significant pathological findings, a step toward anatomy more comparable to humans.

PEG-MGF

Foundational research distinguishing MGF from mature IGF-1 found the two act through different signaling routes, with MGF specifically activating satellite cells, the muscle stem cells responsible for triggering repair and growth. Because MGF is produced specifically in response to mechanical damage, research has focused on its role as an early signal in the muscle repair cascade, distinct from the broader, more systemic effects of circulating IGF-1. Beyond skeletal muscle, MGF expression has also been studied in tendon and bone cell models exposed to mechanical stress, suggesting the mechano-responsive signaling extends to other load-bearing tissues.

Longevity

10

Peptides explored for their reported anti-aging and cellular health properties.

FOXO4-DRI

The foundational study found that FOXO4-DRI selectively induced cell death in senescent cells across multiple mouse models, restoring measures of fitness, fur density, and kidney function in aged mice, and neutralizing chemotherapy-induced toxicity when given alongside doxorubicin. Research in human chondrocytes, the cells that produce and maintain cartilage, found that FOXO4-DRI removed more than half of senescent cells generated during cell expansion for cartilage repair procedures, without significantly affecting minimally expanded, less senescent cells. Separate research found FOXO4-DRI improved measures of sperm production in aged mice by reducing inflammatory secretions from senescent cells in the testes, extending the compound's research relevance beyond its original tissue models.

MitoCore

MitoCore is a product name used by peptide vendors, generally referring to a proprietary blend marketed toward mitochondrial support and energy metabolism research. It's important to know upfront that MitoCore is not a standardized, independently defined compound the way BPC-157 or Semax are, and no dedicated peer-reviewed research specific to a product by this name was identified.

MTS-31

MTS-31 is a product name used by peptide vendors, appearing in research chemical catalogs without a standardized, independently verifiable definition. As with other similarly named vendor products, no dedicated peer-reviewed research specific to a compound by this name was identified.

Epithalon

The central focus of Epithalon research is its effect on telomerase, an enzyme involved in maintaining the protective caps on the ends of chromosomes, called telomeres, which shorten as cells divide over time. Several animal studies from the same research group have looked at how long-term Epithalon exposure relates to lifespan and age-related markers in mice and rats. Because Epithalon is modeled on a pineal gland substance, some research has also looked at its relationship to melatonin production and the body's internal clock.

Glutathione

The central and most established area of glutathione research is its role neutralizing reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, the unstable molecules tied to oxidative stress and cellular damage. A key question in the field has been whether taking glutathione actually raises the amount available in the body. A controlled human trial found that sustained oral supplementation did meaningfully increase glutathione levels in blood and immune cells. As more human trials have accumulated, researchers have started pooling the data together. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis of glutathione supplementation trials found that higher doses and longer durations were more consistently associated with increased body glutathione levels.

MOTS-c

The foundational area of MOTS-c research is its effect on metabolism, with the original study finding it improved glucose regulation and reduced signs of insulin resistance and obesity in animal models. Beyond metabolism specifically, research has found MOTS-c moves into the cell's nucleus in response to metabolic stress, where it appears to help regulate the activity of genes involved in the body's stress response. A more recent area of study has looked at MOTS-c's connection to physical activity, since it increases in response to exercise and has been studied for its role in supporting muscle function as animals age.

SS-31 (Elamipretide)

The most clinically developed area of SS-31 research addresses Barth syndrome, a rare genetic disorder that disrupts normal cardiolipin structure. A Phase 2/3 trial and its long-term extension found meaningful improvements in physical function and cardiac measures in patients treated with elamipretide, ultimately supporting its FDA approval. Foundational biophysical research has examined exactly how SS-31 interacts with mitochondrial membranes at a molecular level, providing the mechanistic basis for its effects across different disease models. Beyond Barth syndrome specifically, SS-31 has been studied in models of heart failure, kidney injury, and other conditions where mitochondrial dysfunction is thought to play a role, reflecting how central mitochondrial health is across many different tissues.

NAD+

The foundational role of NAD+ is its participation in redox reactions central to energy production, DNA repair, and chromatin remodeling, functions that touch nearly every aspect of cell biology. A major area of research has tested whether precursor compounds, molecules the body can convert into NAD+, actually raise NAD+ levels in humans. A controlled trial found that nicotinamide riboside supplementation was well tolerated and increased NAD+ levels in healthy middle-aged and older adults. More recently, researchers have taken stock of the accumulated human trial data and found a more complicated picture than animal research originally suggested. A 2025 review concluded that evidence for an age-related NAD+ decline in humans has been consistently observed in only a limited number of studies, and that human trials of NAD+ precursors have shown limited efficacy so far.

Humanin

The foundational discovery study found Humanin protected neurons from cell death induced by several genes and proteins associated with familial Alzheimer's disease, including mutant forms of APP and presenilin. Later research examined a more potent synthetic analog of Humanin in aged mice, finding improvements in motor coordination and spatial memory measures after sustained treatment. Beyond neuroprotection specifically, Humanin has been studied for cytoprotective effects relevant to cardiovascular health, metabolic regulation, and other age-related conditions, reflecting its role as a broader stress-signaling molecule rather than one limited to brain tissue.

SS-20

The core interest in SS-20, as with other members of the Szeto-Schiller series, is its ability to concentrate specifically inside mitochondria, a targeting property built into the peptide's chemical design rather than achieved through a receptor. Where SS-20 does appear in the literature, it's often as a comparison compound alongside SS-31 and other family members, used to help researchers understand structure-activity relationships within this peptide series rather than as the primary subject of a dedicated study.

Sleep & Circadian

1

Peptides studied for sleep onset, circadian rhythm, and neurological signaling.

DSIP (Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide)

The original and most consistent research focus on DSIP has been its relationship to slow-wave (delta) sleep, the deep stage of sleep associated with the most restorative rest. A handful of human studies have looked at DSIP's effect on measures like sleep efficiency and how long it takes to fall asleep, though results across these studies have been mixed. Beyond sleep specifically, DSIP has been studied for a broader role in the body's neuroendocrine system, the network connecting the brain to hormone regulation.

Hormonal & Fertility

4

Approved and research hormones studied for testosterone, fertility, and endocrine signaling.

Gonadorelin

A prospective study comparing pulsatile gonadorelin delivered via infusion pump against standard combined gonadotropin therapy found the gonadorelin pump produced earlier spermatogenesis and more favorable testosterone levels in men with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. A systematic review and meta-analysis pooling data from 420 patients across eight studies confirmed that pulsatile GnRH therapy achieves earlier spermatogenesis onset compared to combined gonadotropin therapy, though overall spermatogenesis rates between the two approaches were not significantly different. Beyond its historical diagnostic and fertility-induction uses, gonadorelin is studied off-label for maintaining natural testicular function and fertility in men undergoing testosterone replacement therapy, since exogenous testosterone suppresses the body's own GnRH-driven hormone cascade.

HCG

The central area of HCG research is its ability to activate the same receptor as LH, prompting the testes to continue producing testosterone even when the body's own LH signaling is suppressed. Because exogenous testosterone suppresses the body's natural LH signal, researchers have studied whether adding low-dose HCG alongside testosterone therapy can preserve sperm production that would otherwise decline. HCG has also been studied as a standalone or combination treatment for certain forms of male infertility linked to low natural gonadotropin signaling.

Kisspeptin-10

A controlled human study found that intravenous Kisspeptin-10 potently stimulated LH release and increased LH pulse frequency in healthy men, establishing its activity in humans for the first time. Follow-up research found that Kisspeptin-10's effect on hormone release differs by sex and by menstrual cycle phase, stimulating gonadotropin release in men and in women during the preovulatory phase, but not during the follicular phase in women. Kisspeptin-10 has been studied as an alternative trigger for oocyte maturation in IVF, particularly for patients at high risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, a serious complication of standard fertility triggers.

Oxytocin

Human studies have found that oxytocin administration reduces food intake and changes activity in brain regions tied to food motivation and self-control, based on functional imaging research. A randomized controlled trial testing intranasal oxytocin over 8 weeks in adults with obesity found improvements in metabolic measures alongside modest weight-related effects, building on earlier animal research showing weight loss with chronic oxytocin treatment. Separate from its metabolic research, animal studies have found oxytocin can speed wound healing, and a clinical study in patients with diabetic foot ulcers found local oxytocin application supported new blood vessel formation relevant to wound repair.

Skin & Hair

9

Peptides studied for collagen, skin structure, pigmentation, and hair-related research.

AHK-Cu

The main research claim specific to AHK-Cu is that it may increase blood vessel density around hair follicles, a proposed mechanism distinct from GHK-Cu's more general tissue-remodeling activity. Sources describing this research are largely secondary and vendor-adjacent rather than pointing to a specific, independently verifiable primary study. Where AHK-Cu does appear in more careful research discussions, it's typically framed as a narrower, less-studied alternative or complement to GHK-Cu, used to explore whether follicle-specific signaling differs from GHK-Cu's broader skin and connective tissue effects.

Snap-8

The foundational research establishing this class of peptide found that a synthetic fragment based on SNAP-25 inhibited neurotransmitter release relevant to muscle contraction, providing the mechanistic basis for using it topically to soften expression-related skin lines. Because Snap-8 and botulinum toxin both target the SNARE complex, though through different specific interactions, research interest has focused on how closely a topical peptide-based approach can approximate the muscle-relaxing effect achieved through injection.

GHK-Cu

The largest area of GHK-Cu research looks at its effect on collagen, elastin, and other structural proteins that make up the skin's supportive matrix. Beyond skin specifically, research has looked at GHK-Cu's role in remodeling connective tissue more broadly, including studies on wound healing and tissue repair in other organs. A more recent area of interest is how GHK-Cu affects gene activity at a broad scale. A widely cited review found it influences the expression of a large portion of genes measured in a major genomic database.

GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500 (Glow Stack)

GHK-Cu's research base centers on collagen production and the enzymes involved in maintaining connective tissue structure. BPC-157's research base centers on blood vessel formation and gut-related signaling, both of which relate to how tissue receives blood flow and support. TB-500's research base centers on actin, the protein that lets cells move and change shape, which has made it a subject of study in wound closure and directed cell movement.

GHK-Cu + KPV

GHK-Cu has been extensively studied for its role in collagen production and tissue remodeling, making it one of the more established peptides in skin-related research. KPV has been studied for its ability to reduce inflammatory signaling pathways, with a particular research base in gut tissue and skin models. Because inflammation and structural repair are connected processes, especially in skin and gut tissue, some research has looked at pairing a structural peptide with one that calms the inflammatory signals that can interfere with repair.

KPV + GHK-Cu

GHK-Cu has been extensively studied for its role in collagen production and tissue remodeling, making it one of the more established peptides in skin-related research. KPV has been studied for its ability to reduce inflammatory signaling pathways, with a particular research base in gut tissue and skin models. Because inflammation and structural repair are connected processes, especially in skin and gut tissue, some research has looked at pairing a structural peptide with one that calms the inflammatory signals that can interfere with repair.

Melanotan 1 (MT-1)

The foundational area of MT-1 research is its ability to trigger melanin production and skin darkening, first demonstrated in an early human trial that established its tanning activity. MT-1's most developed clinical research addresses erythropoietic protoporphyria, a rare genetic condition that causes severe pain on sun exposure. A pair of Phase 3 trials found the approved afamelanotide implant increased how long patients could tolerate sunlight without pain. Because MT-1 is also sold outside regulated channels, researchers have separately reviewed the safety differences between the approved pharmaceutical form and unregulated versions sold for tanning purposes.

Melanotan 2 (MT-2)

Like Melanotan 1, MT-2's earliest research documented its ability to darken skin, established in a pilot Phase I human trial in the 1990s. Because MT-2 activates receptors beyond the pigmentation pathway, a distinct area of research examined its effect on erectile function, finding it could initiate erections in men with certain forms of erectile dysfunction. Because MT-2 is sold outside regulated pharmaceutical channels, a body of research has specifically reviewed the safety risks associated with its unregulated use, including case reports of serious adverse effects.

KLOW Stack (GHK-Cu, BPC-157, TB-500, and KPV)

GHK-Cu's research base centers on collagen production and the enzymes involved in maintaining connective tissue structure. BPC-157's research base centers on blood vessel formation and gut-related signaling, both tied to how tissue receives blood flow and structural support. TB-500's research base centers on actin, the protein that lets cells move and change shape, making it a subject of research in wound closure and directed cell movement. KPV's research base centers on reducing inflammatory signaling pathways, with a particular research history in gut and skin inflammation models.

Neurological

16

Peptides studied for neuroprotection, cognitive function, anxiety, and brain-based signaling.

Adamax

Adamax is a vendor-marketed variant of Semax, chemically modified with an adamantane group and sold under two different product designations, 984 and 1032, which refer to the molecular weight of each specific version. As with other modified Semax variants, it's important to know upfront that no dedicated published research on Adamax itself was identified.

NeuroMatrix

NeuroMatrix is a product name used by peptide vendors, generally marketed toward cognitive and neurological research. As with other similarly branded products, it's not a single, independently defined compound with its own dedicated published research, and no peer-reviewed studies specific to a product by this name were identified.

Selank + Semax

Selank's research base centers on anxiolytic effects, with a Russian clinical study finding effects comparable to a standard anxiolytic medication alongside additional benefits on fatigue. Semax's research base centers on neuroprotection, with clinical evidence in acute stroke recovery and a proposed mechanism involving increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. Because Selank's research focus is calming and anxiety-related while Semax's is neuroprotective and cognition-related, researchers pairing them are generally interested in whether addressing both angles together, calming the nervous system while supporting its underlying function, produces a more complete effect than either compound alone.

VIP

Controlled trials of inhaled aviptadil in patients with pulmonary hypertension found it produced measurable, selective pulmonary vasodilation, the foundational human evidence behind VIP's clinical development. VIP's known anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties led to its evaluation as aviptadil in multiple controlled trials for COVID-19 ARDS, based on its established role in regulating the immune response and reducing SARS-CoV-2's ability to enter cells through downregulation of viral entry proteins. Beyond specific clinical indications, VIP has been studied extensively for its broader role in immune homeostasis, including suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokine release and promoting regulatory T-cell activity, research that underlies its exploration across multiple inflammatory and autoimmune contexts.

PT-141 (Bremelanotide)

The core clinical research on PT-141 addresses hypoactive sexual desire disorder, with two Phase 3 trials involving over 1,200 premenopausal women finding it significantly improved measures of sexual desire and reduced related distress compared to placebo. Earlier preclinical research examined how PT-141 affects sexual function through brain pathways specifically, distinguishing its mechanism from peripheral, blood-flow-based approaches. As with several approved medications, more recent researchers have gone back and reanalyzed the original trial data. A 2024 reanalysis raised questions about the actual size of PT-141's effect and how meaningful the reported improvements are in practice.

Selank

The central area of Selank research is its anxiolytic, or anxiety-reducing, effect. A Russian clinical study comparing Selank to a standard anxiolytic medication found comparable effects on anxiety symptoms, along with additional benefits on fatigue. A body of mechanistic research has looked at exactly how Selank produces its calming effect, examining its interaction with several different neurochemical systems rather than a single target. An early and specific line of research found that Selank inhibits the enzymes responsible for breaking down enkephalins, the body's own opioid-like signaling molecules, which researchers proposed as one mechanism behind its effects.

Semax

The most established area of Semax research addresses acute ischemic stroke. An early clinical and electrophysiological study found that adding Semax to standard stroke treatment influenced the rate of neurological recovery compared to conventional therapy alone. A separate line of research examined how Semax affects brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein involved in neuron survival and plasticity, finding that Semax specifically binds and increases BDNF levels in animal models. Building on the earlier acute-stroke research, a more recent open clinical study examined Semax across both acute and recovery phases of ischemic stroke, tracking motor function, daily living measures, and plasma BDNF over several months.

Cerebrolysin

A large placebo-controlled trial in Asia found Cerebrolysin improved neurological outcomes at 90 days in stroke patients, with a more pronounced effect in those with more severe strokes at baseline. A meta-analysis pooling multiple randomized trials in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease found Cerebrolysin produced a statistically significant improvement in cognitive function compared to placebo. A separate large multicenter trial examined Cerebrolysin specifically for recovery in the weeks following stroke, rather than during the acute treatment window, to assess its effect on longer-term functional outcomes.

N-Acetyl Semax and N-Acetyl Selank

N-Acetyl Semax and N-Acetyl Selank are chemically modified versions of Semax and Selank, two peptides developed in Russia for cognitive and anxiety-related research. The acetyl modification is marketed as improving nasal absorption and stability, but it's worth knowing upfront that this specific claim doesn't appear to have dedicated published research behind it.

Pinealon

The foundational study on Pinealon found it reduced the buildup of reactive oxygen species and reduced cell death in brain cell cultures exposed to several different oxidative stress triggers. Research has also looked at Pinealon in a rat model of prenatal hyperhomocysteinemia, a condition tied to oxidative stress, finding it offered some protective effect on the developing brain. More recent research has examined Pinealon alongside related short peptides in a lab model of Alzheimer's disease, looking at whether it helps preserve the structural connections between neurons.

ARA-290

A completed Phase 2 trial in patients with sarcoidosis-associated small fiber neuropathy found that 28 days of ARA-290 treatment improved neuropathic symptoms and increased corneal nerve fiber density, a direct measure of nerve regeneration. Earlier preclinical research in a rat model of nerve injury found ARA-290 produced long-lasting reductions in pain sensitivity, alongside suppression of spinal cord immune cell activity linked to chronic pain. ARA-290 has also been studied in a Phase 2 trial in people with type 2 diabetes, examining effects on metabolic control alongside neuropathic symptoms, since diabetic neuropathy shares underlying mechanisms with the sarcoidosis-related nerve damage studied elsewhere.

Adalank

Adalank is a vendor-marketed variant of Selank, chemically modified with an adamantane group and sold as a nasal spray. As with other similarly modified variants, no dedicated published research on Adalank itself was identified; the modification's benefits are marketed by analogy to general peptide chemistry rather than demonstrated directly.

Adamax / Adalank

A clinical and electrophysiological study found that adding Semax to standard treatment in the acute period of ischemic stroke was associated with measurable differences in neurological recovery, tracked using clinical rating scales alongside EEG and evoked-potential recordings. Separate mechanistic research found Semax binds specifically to sites tied to BDNF and increases its levels in the rat basal forebrain, a brain region involved in memory and attention, without triggering the cortisol-releasing activity of full-length ACTH. A follow-up clinical study tracked Semax across both the acute and recovery phases of ischemic stroke, examining motor function, daily living measures, and plasma BDNF over several months rather than just the initial treatment window.

Dihexa

Early in vitro research measured dihexa's effect on dendritic spine formation in cultured neurons, comparing it with BDNF at a narrow assay endpoint. Animal studies examined dihexa in rodent models of impairment resembling Alzheimer's disease, reporting changes attributed to enhanced synaptic connectivity. Rodent research examined apparent oral bioavailability and blood-brain barrier penetration, properties that distinguished dihexa from many injectable research peptides.

Nasal Neuro Triple Blend

Nasal Neuro Triple Blend is a product name used by peptide vendors for a nasal spray combining three neuro-focused peptides, typically drawn from compounds like Semax, Selank, or related variants. It is not a single independently defined compound with its own dedicated research; relevance depends on which specific peptides a product contains.

Semax + Selank + Pinealon

Semax's research base centers on stroke recovery, with clinical evidence examining neurological outcomes when added to standard treatment and a proposed mechanism involving increased BDNF levels. Selank's research base centers on anxiolytic effects, with a Russian clinical trial comparing it with a standard anxiolytic medication and also examining fatigue-related outcomes. Pinealon has been studied for reducing oxidative damage in brain cell cultures, with animal research extending into models of prenatal oxidative stress. This research base is narrow and concentrated within one research group.

For educational and research purposes only. Not medical advice.